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While we may be familiar with brewing and dressing options of finished coffee beans, the roast level options can be more obscure.

Here are 2 general guidelines.

Heat reduces caffeine and antioxidant levels in coffee beans. The deeper the roast, the less caffeine and antioxidants are in the finished beans.

Roasting overshadows the characteristics of the bean with it’s own characteristics. The deeper the roast, the less the coffee bean characters show.

In order from light to dark, here are some commonly used roast level terms.

Green coffee is made from unroasted beans. Since the majority of aromas and flavors associated with coffee are from the roasting process, green coffee is almost unrecognizable as the coffee we most often see. It is hazel in color with grassy characteristics reminiscent of tea, but more acidic than both teas and roasted coffees. It does have the highest level of antioxidant properties since none have been destroyed by heat during roasting. Ground green coffee can be steeped in tea fashion. Whole green coffee beans require an overnight soak and then can be boiled and removed before consuming the liquid.

Cinnamon Roast -- Beans are slightly roasted to a cinnamon color and there is no oil showing on the beans at this point. This is usually only used in comparison scenarios.

City Roast -- Also called light roast, these beans will display very little roast flavor but the qualities of the bean really show through. No oil on the beans.

City+ Roast -- This is a light-medium roast and the roasting characteristics show but the quality of the bean is still mostly discernible. No oil on the beans. Acidity is starting to lower.

Full City Roast -- A full medium roast and the balance is fairly even between the roasting and the bean characteristics. Some oil is starting to show on beans.

Full City+ Roast -- This medium-dark roast is similar to Full City but the acidity is a bit lower.

Vienna Roast -- This is a dark roast and most of the flavor here is just from the roasting. Very little of the original bean can be tasted. Caffeine is lighter and the beans fully coated with oil.

French Roast -- Bit of a burnt flavor from roasting and few to no discernible flavors or aromas of the original bean. Heavy oil coating.

Spanish Roast - Not super drinkable at this point! All the flavor has been roasted out. Very oily beans.

January 2026

Primitivo is grown widely over Southern Italy in Sardinia, Campania, Abruzzo, Basilicata and Apulia. Zinfandel is grown in several areas of North America, such as Arizona, Texas, Washington, Colorado, California, and British Columbia.

Primitivo is harvested at lower sugar and higher acid contents, producing a subtler wine that can withstand a bit of aging. Zin is allowed to ripen to a higher sugar content, producing a drink-now wine with a higher than average abv (alcohol by volume).

Generally speaking, French oak barrels are used for primitivo for a subtler approach that won’t overwhelm the wine. American oak is used for zinfandel and gives a more powerful punch of oak characteristics to meet the higher alcohol, fruitier wine.

Primitivo shows less jammy fruit and has higher acidity so my choice pairing would be grilled vegetables with a tomato-based sauce. Pizza and burgers are also good options. Classic pairing for zinfandel is bbq sauce. The sauce is usually slightly spicy and sweet, which is an excellent companion to zin’s touch of pepper and huge sweet fruit.

The use of ‘old vine zinfandel’ on a label stems from the ideas that very old vines produce less fruit and that fewer grapes on a vine mean more flavor. Since there are no legal requirements for using this on a label in the United States, and zin is a long-living vine that outlives and outproduces most of its neighboring grapes anyway, I am uninterested in the use of ‘old vine’ on a zin label.

July 2025

It is not uncommon to find matching DNA in what were thought to be different grape varieties. When a new grapevine variety is found, it is named as the first-time discovery it is believed to be. What if years before it had been transported in from its native region during wars, or by explorers or new settlers and the original name forgotten, never noted, or mistaken for other varieties planted nearby? Such is the case with the Croatian grape called crljenak kaštelanski. It is called primitivo in Italy, and kratošija in Macedonia, and zinfandel in North America. These are but a few of its names around the world. Some even call it ZPC (Zinfandel Primitivo Crljenak Kaštelanski).

In the 18th century, the Croatian grape, crljenak kaštelanski, was brought to and planted in Italy. These grapes ripened earlier than expected and so were called primitivo (first one). Primitivo vines were well suited for rapid growth in the heat of Southern Italy and quickly became one of the most planted varieties in Apulia.

In 1829, the crljenak kaštelanski grape arrived in Boston, most likely via Austria. It was called zenfendal and used as a table, rather than a wine, grape. It didn’t grow well on the East Coast of the United States but made it to a more suitable growing region on the West Coast during the gold rush 20 years later.

In 1857, shortly after the gold rush ended, this grape was first used in the United States for winemaking by the Oak Knoll Vineyard in Napa. It was not only thought to be native to the US but many thought it native to the West Coast.

In 1967, a University of California Davis Professor, Austin Goheen, visited Italy, and recognized a similarity between primitivo and zinfandel. They were analyzed and proven identical.

In the 1990s, Carole Meredith of UC Davis, put in years of effort to locate this grape’s birthplace. In 2001, after sampling and analyzing grapes from only 9 remaining vines found mixed in a field with other varieties, in Kaštel Novi, Croatia, it was determined that the grape called crljenak kaštelanski contains the same DNA and that the earliest recordings of this vine were in Croatia.

Although the above names all refer to the same grape, the profiles of the wines produced from them are varied, due to differen

January 2025

Knowing names and taste profiles of the subcategories of whiskey helps when choosing a bottle. Adding correct terminology helps when ordering a drink. Knowing how whiskey is processed illuminates why characteristics make it into the bottle. Every detail contributes or detracts from the finished product. Here’s an overview of how whiskey is made.

Based on local regulations or preferences for the desired finished product, one or multiple grains are chosen. Grain choice matters (corn is sweet, rye is spicy, etc.) and different grains react differently to fermentation and exposure to wood and oxygen.

Next, the grains might be malted. Malting is the process of soaking grains in water until they germinate then drying them to stop the growing process. Malting breaks starches into enzymes and sugars necessary for fermentation. Yeast feeds on sugars and one byproduct is ethanol (drinking alcohol). All included grains, or only a portion, might be malted. Enzyme additives to spark fermentation are sometimes allowed. The flavors are definitely different in malted vs. non-malted grain. Often a malt whiskey will display caramel or toast nuances. Although most whiskeys include malted grains, generally the term ‘malted’ is reserved for those made primarily from malted barley. Drying is accomplished by hot air or over a fire. In Scotland, peat is often burned to produce heat to dry malted barley and this peat smoke flavor is evident in the bottle.

The ground and dried grains are mixed with water and yeast in a large tank. This 'mash' is left to ferment for a few days and will reach about 10% alcohol content. Sour mash is akin to sourdough in that some of the current mash is reserved to add to the next batch to either provide more layers or keep multiple batches within a brand’s taste profile.

The grains may be separated from the liquid before or after distillation. This ‘spent grain’ is not used again for whiskey production, but makes a great feed for livestock.

Distilling is next. It removes some water to increase alcohol content and also removes some impurities. A column or pot still is used to evaporate and separate the alcohol from the other ingredients. Oftentimes the still is made of copper or steel with copper lining or piping since copper removes sulfur compounds. Column stills can remove more of the water and impurities, all but about 5%, actually.

Water (the water source and quality matters) is added to the distilled alcohol to achieve the desired alcohol by volume (abv) for the finished product.

The liquid is poured into wooden barrels, which are often charred inside, then left to age. Since the liquid pulls compounds from the wood, the type of wood, level of charring, barrel size, and aging time all contribute to the final flavors. About 25 years is the most improvement that wood can provide to a whiskey.

Generally whiskey does not change or continue to age once bottled. The age statement on the label refers to time in barrel. A whiskey that has been aged for 10 years in wood and released in 2000 will still be considered a 10-year whiskey in 2050. In a blended whiskey, the age statement refers to the shortest age time of the included barrels. Oxygen can still change the product, but mostly after the bottle is opened and only by a very small amount.

All whiskeys are filtered before bottling to remove obvious visible particles. Smaller particles might still cloud the liquid. Chill filtering is an extra effort to obtain a clearer product. Various particles separate at different temperatures. If the product is chilled, as in on the rocks, the cloudiness will increase. To avoid this, the whiskey is chilled out of the barrel to induce and filter cloudiness before bottling. The downside is this can alter characteristics. Often the filtering process is stated on the label, especially if it’s non-chill filtered.

Alcohol by volume (abv) is on the label to state which portion of the liquid is ethanol (drinkable alcohol). Abv is measured differently around the world which slightly affects the final number. Sometimes the required temperature at which it is measured is slightly different. It’s a whole explanation on partial molar volume that is better suited for a future article. For general purposes, the abv statement on the bottle is a close guide to the proportions in the bottle.

Proof statements vary even more. For instance, the US proof number is double the abv, the proof number in France is the same as the abv, and the UK uses a 4 to 7 scale. Proof began as a crude way to prove a liquid’s alcohol level for taxation (soaking gunpowder in the liquid in question and then trying to ignite it and sort of thing). It's not required on labels, but is often included for tradition's sake. Abv is the modern method of proof.

Whiskey makers must make many choices and the combinations of choices affecting the finished products are endless. I hope this three-part series helps you find whiskeys you love.

July 2024

Don’t know what you’ll receive if you order a whiskey neat, straight, or straight up? Afraid to let the bartender choose the brand for both price and flavor? With so many options and the fact that the terminology of ordering is not consistent among bartenders, ordering a whisky or drink including whisky that you will love is daunting. Clearing up a few terms seems a good place to start.
POUR is a broad term for a serving, such as a pour of whiskey or a pour of wine. The pour can be large or small, such as 4-ounce pour or 1-ounce pour. Like to know how much wine you will receive since this varies from 4 to 5 to 6 ounces and sometimes more? Ask …

***How many ounces are your wine pours?***

SHOT is a 1½-ounce pour of room temperature whisky right out of the bottle, meaning not into a mixer first to add ice, water, or juices, but instead poured directly into the serving container. If unspecified, it is generally a cheaper spirit, meant for quick consumption, and served in a shot glass for less clean up. Of course, you may order a shot of top-shelf and specify any brand you wish or simply say top-shelf. A single shot is 1½ ounces and a double shot is 3 ounces. Without specification, a single will be served.

***I’ll take a shot of whiskey. I’d like a double shot of Irish whiskey.***

Single vs. double. Double is twice the alcohol that would normally be in that drink. A shot 1½ would double to 3 ounces, but neat 2 would double to 4 ounces. In a cocktail or mixed drink, a double only doubles the amount of alcohol but does not change the amounts of the other ingredients. This will obviously change the balance of the finished product so keep that in mind when deciding between a double whiskey sour or two singles.
TOP SHELF means some of the higher price and quality items that the bar stocks and may be applied to any order from a shot to a cocktail. This will vary by bar and inventory.

***I’d like a top-shelf bourbon on the rocks. I’d like a top-shelf mint julep.***

NEAT is different from a shot in size and quality and glassware. It is a 2-ounce pour of room temperature, but often poured into a shot glass first for measure then into a whiskey glass. Meant for sipping, it is generally of higher quality. Specify if you’d like a different quality spirit or a different sized pour. If you’d like 4 ounces, order a double. If you are planning to have 2 drinks, ordering a double is both more cost effective than 2 singles and avoids having to flag the bartender or waiter again. This works well for drinks with no ice, whereas you might prefer the freshened up 2nd drink if ice or mixers are involved.

***I’ll have a double scotch neat.***

UP is 2-ounces of whiskey poured into a shaker (large cup with lid) with ice and shaken to chill, then strained into a glass, leaving the ice behind. The final drink is about 3 ounces of chilled liquid (one ounce water and 2 ounces alcohol).

***House whiskey UP, please. Top shelf scotch UP.***

Straight up and straight. Don’t use these terms as they are open to interpretation and you might not receive what you think you ordered. Straight up sometimes means UP but sometimes means straight as in plain, such as a shot or NEAT. Straight can mean either straight shot or straight up as in chilled. Use NEAT or UP to avoid misinterpretation and you won’t be surprised when your drink arrives.

ON THE ROCKS. Rocks=ice cubes (sometimes crushed as in a margarita, but cubes for whiskey) so your order will include ice cubes in the glass. Ice first, pour over the top. Whiskey on the rocks will be 2-ounces poured either directly from bottle (bartenders have skills) or into a shot glass for measure and then into the glass over the ice.

***Double whisky on the rocks, please.***

WITH A TWIST means the drink is garnished with a thin scrape of a lemon peel (which when scraped forms a twisted curly shape) with no meat of the fruit. This allows the lemon oil from the peel to drift into the drink for a lemon essence. For instance, gin and vermouth are delicate and lemon oil is right for that rather than a slice of lemon that would drop too much juice and overwhelm the drink. Twist means lemon so, if you’d prefer a lime or orange twist, you will need to specify. Lemon goes well with scotch. I love lime with whiskey. Orange goes particularly well with bourbon. Of course you may order with a slice of fruit as well, which would provide more juice for the drink.

***Scotch and soda with a twist, please. Whisky on the rocks with a lime.***

BACK is another drink served on the side in a different glass. Perhaps you’d like a coke, or club soda, or even a beer to go along with your whiskey. Order it as a back. Order scotch and soda to receive them mixed in the same glass. Order scotch with a soda back if you are expecting 2 different glasses, one with scotch and one with club soda. If you’d like a whiskey to sip but also are having snacks and want something to quench thirst, then order. . .

***Whiskey neat, soda back with a twist.*** (sort of like learning to order coffee as you like it)

CHASER is much like a BACK, meaning that it will be in a different vessel, but generally meant to follow a shot rather than be sipped alongside. If you’d like to have a quick taste of whiskey and then a beer to sip, order . . .

***Shot of whiskey, beer chaser.***

A word about pricing and brands. Drink prices vary wildly from dollar shots to $50 neat pours because bottle price, availability, and reputation vary. A whiskey bar or restaurant with a broad and consistent high-end selection will likely have a menu with pricing so you may choose with comfort. Many taverns will not. If you are unsure of pricing, ask for pricing and brand of house whiskey and go from there. It’s good to tell the bartender what you are trying to accomplish. ***I’m new to bourbon so can you recommend an entry cost smooth one? Islay scotch is my drink, what do you have in the $20 range?*** If you know which brand you want, then say it, or ask their pricing of that brand even if you know the general cost. Another fun option is to state what you know you like and ask for a similar recommendation so that you can branch out. ***I love smoky whiskies, please advise. Beam is my favorite but I’d like to try something new that is similar.***

Bottle service can work well for a group. This means the entire bottle is purchased whether finished or not. The details vary, such as customers vs. waitstaff pouring, or are mixers included. Some have additional requirements for bottle service, such as paid table reservations or minimum food order, but it’s worth an ask if you know you will all be drinking the same product and you have enough people to finish the bottle. There are approximately twelve 2-ounce pours in a 750ml (normal-sized) bottle.

I think a fun way to learn is to order a whiskey neat, with a soda back, and bowl with a lemon, lime, and orange wedge. This will give a great comparison of the options. Sip it neat, then add an ice cube and try again, then add a bit of soda and try again, then add a squeeze of citrus and try again.

A whiskey flight is also a great way to sample and they arrive placed in tasting order, meaning lighter and less flavor to heavier and more flavor. It’s great to have them side by side for comparison. Order a soda back and few slices of citrus so the tasting experiment is more complete.

Mention how new your palate is to the scene to help narrow recommendations. They are unlikely to recommend a heavily-peated scotch or a Tennessee whiskey to a new palate, much in the same way that perhaps an espresso would be too bold for an early try at coffee. The comfortable first sips that work for most palates are Irish or Canadian whiskies or bourbons ‘up’ or included in a cocktail. This is not a comment on their complexity, but rather on their elevated levels of sweetness and smoothness and the fact that tastebuds do not process chilled items as potently as room temperature items and that sugar coats the tongue right away rendering the taste buds less likely to pick up bitter flavors.

Mixed drink vs cocktail. Always will be confusion here since the words are often used interchangeably. Mixed drink is something like a jack and coke and a cocktail is a variety of ingredients carefully put together such as an old-fashioned. Even in a mixed drink or cocktail, the flavors make a huge difference just as ingredients in foods do. If at a loss, tell the bartender your preferences (smooth, chilled, sweet, sour, etc.) and take their recommendation for a spin. They know the differences and will be able to guide.

PRO TIP: Sweet drinks need the balance of a less sweet product, so stay away from bourbon or other corn-heavy whiskies in a coke unless you are particularly looking for syrupy sweet, as in an after dinner mixed drink. But a sour drink, such as a whiskey sour, benefits greatly from a corn-based bourbon whiskey for balance. As with all foods and drinks, the ingredients alter the finished product.

Be open to the idea that palates change over time. It’s easy to notice that in foods that we find good over the years as we try new and lose ‘taste’ for old. The same is true for wine and spirits. Of course, mood and occasion affect preferences as well. Mimosa for brunch is light and bubbly and tart, but perhaps sitting by the fire on a cold night calls for a warm bold sipping whiskey or a smooth and sweet bourbon cocktail such as a blackberry smash. A heavy sweet drink as an aperitif often interferes with the appetite as the sugar sits on an empty stomach, but a manhattan works nicely before a meal. Just as people prefer different food flavors, they also prefer different flavors/aromas/characteristics in drinks. It’s not about looking for the most popular spirit because you don’t need to like those. It’s about identifying your preferences and locating drinks with the ingredients that meet your individual preferences.

January 2024

Is bourbon a whiskey or is whiskey a bourbon? Where does scotch fall in the family tree? Are they even related? Wonder if you would prefer corn, barley, rye, or wheated whisky? Notice I’m alternating the whiskey/whisky spelling? There is ample room for confusion in the world of whiskey. This series of three articles will outline subcategories of whisky, teach ordering terminology, and show how and why the chosen and/or regulated processing differences affect characteristics of finished products.

Whisky or whiskey? The spelling is not regulated. It depends on the country’s preference and tradition. There is a long history of the two spellings being used to distinguish a country’s products from the competition (Scotland vs. Ireland), or for a country to try to establish an association to an existing product (US chose the Irish with ’e’ spelling), or sometimes a simple misprint in a document of regulation drives a distillery's labeling choices. Although each country uses both spellings, the majority of the United States and Ireland include the ‘e’ and other countries generally do not. Quick way to remember: countries spelled with an ‘e’ use the ‘e’. When speaking of one country, I will use the most popular spelling for that country. When speaking broadly, I will alternate spellings. By the way, the plural of whiskey is whiskeys and the plural of whisky is whiskies.

Whisky is a category of alcohol made from various grains that are fermented and distilled and typically aged in wooden barrels. There are numerous subcategories which must adhere to different regulations in order to use certain names such as scotch or bourbon. They vary greatly in taste and aroma according to which grains are used, the processing equipment and routine, the aging time and types of barrels, and possible allowed additives. Starting with American whiskeys, let’s go.

Bourbon whiskey (often just called bourbon) must contain a minimum of 51% corn, but usually contains more, and must be aged in new charred oak barrels. This means the barrels are only used one time and heavily impart the characteristics of wood and charring into the liquid. The high corn content generally provides a sweeter and smoother finished product as compared to other cereal grains. The Federal Standards of Identity for bourbon state it may be made anywhere in the US, but approximately 95% is made in Kentucky. Point of interest: The name bourbon refers to the area of Old Bourbon in Kentucky, which is present-day Bourbon County. As required of all American whiskeys, a minimum of 2 years aging is needed to allow use of the term straight bourbon.

Wheated bourbons use wheat as one of the grains after the required minimum 51% corn. I think wheat stands up well to extended aging and the flavor is milder than the rye usually in its place. These milder flavors mean more of the sweetness from the corn and the characteristics from the barrel can shine through. Pappy Van Winkle is probably the most famous. If you find yourself in the mindset to spend $2500 on a top-shelf bottle, take a look at the Old Rip 25 below.

Tennessee whiskey qualifies as bourbon whiskey, which is a subcategory of whiskey. Make no mistake, they would rather not be called a bourbon but prefer to distinguish themselves from bourbon whiskey, which is closely tied to Kentucky. This is less a rivalry and more about presenting a different product. However, they do adhere to the regulations of and fit neatly into the bourbon category. Here's the difference. In addition, there are two more regulations required to step from a bourbon to a Tennessee whiskey. It must be produced in the state of Tennessee (bourbon can be produced in any of the US states) and, unless grandfathered into the 2013 law, it must use the Lincoln County Process of filtration through sugar maple charcoal. The rest of the process of Tennessee whiskey is identical to bourbon whiskey. Point of interest: Lincoln County Process received its name from Lincoln County, Tennessee, which was the original home of the Jack Daniels Distillery (which has since moved to neighboring Moore County to accommodate local laws). This is my favorite subcategory of American whiskey.

Corn whiskey must contain a minimum of 80% corn, which tends toward a very sweet profile. It is generally not aged, or aged in uncharred or used barrels to avoid the added flavors and colors. Corn whiskey is fairly light in color and usually bottled as legal moonshine (meaning taxed).

Malt whiskey must contain a minimum of 51% malted (partially germinated) barley. Malting the grain adds a nutty toasty cereal element.

Rye whiskey must contain a minimum of 51% rye and tends toward a spicy profile, which works well in mixed drinks or cocktails that include sweet ingredients. American rye can be made anywhere in the US. I’m emphasizing that rye whiskey is underappreciated and a sweet mixed drink or cocktail will be improved by subbing in rye whiskey for a sweeter one.

Rye malt whiskey must contain a minimum of 51% malted rye. Best of both worlds with spice and toast.

Wheat whiskey must contain a minimum of 51% wheat. This is different from wheated bourbon that still must contain minimum 51% corn and then some wheat. Again though, wheat stands up well to aging and has a mild flavor that often smacks of honey, especially if the oak imparts vanilla. Delicious.

The above types of American whiskey must not be distilled to over 80% abv and may not be barreled at more than 125 proof. Water is the only additive allowed. Except for corn whiskey, they must be aged in new charred oak. There is no required minimum aging time, but if aged for at least two years, it is designated as a straight whiskey (which confuses ordering since ordering a straight whiskey does not refer to aging time).

Blended whiskey contains a blend of whiskeys and is allowed to contain some neutral grain spirits, flavoring, and coloring additives.

Light whiskey is produced at more than 80% alcohol by volume (abv) and stored in used or uncharred new oak containers. 'Light’ refers to color and not abv, which is generally high.

Spirit whiskey need only contain a minimum of 5% of a recognized whiskey category. The rest may be neutral spirits.

Cask strength (barrel proof) whiskies are bottled from the cask either undiluted or only lightly diluted making them a higher abv.

Single cask (single barrel) whiskies are bottled from an individual cask. Since casks, even in the same batch, will vary in characteristics, the bottles are labeled with the cask number.

Japanese whisky is fairly new (first distillery 1924) and was mostly unregulated until last year, yet it tends to have high standards. It was created to emulate the style of scotch and uses similar distilling methods and contains malted barley. Japanese whisky has been greatly overlooked until 2001, when a Japanese whisky won Whisky Magazine’s “Best of the Best”. As expected, this caused shortages due to increased demand.

Irish whiskey is made from malted barley but can contain other grains, can only be distilled using water and caramel coloring, and must be aged in wood for a minimum of three years. The result is a smooth sipper.

Canadian whisky must be produced and aged in Canada, distilled from fermented cereal grains, aged in wood for a minimum of three years. Canadian whisky and Canadian rye whisky do not have different legal requirements for percentages of specific grains. They can, and often do, contain caramel coloring and flavoring, which makes them lighter and sweeter and a good choice for those new to whisky.

Scotch whisky (often just called scotch) is made in Scotland under rigid regulations. Made primarily with malted barley, it must age in oak for a minimum of three years and the age statement of the youngest whisky in the blend must be included on the label. Contrary to its reputation, not all scotch is smoky. Smoke from burning peat to dry the barley is optional.

Single malts scotch whiskies are produced at a single distillery using only water and malted barley.

Blended malt whisky is a mixture of single malt whiskies from different distilleries and are more difficult to make as a blend master is required to test and create the blend. The blending smoothes the gaps in a single malt often making an easier-drinking and more well-balanced finished product.

Areas of Scotland and associated styles of whisky

Speyside: sweet, vanilla, oak, baking spices, light peat

Islay: heavy peat, perhaps a bit fishy or salty, intense

Highland: fruity, mildly smoky

Lowland: sweet, simple, toasty

Cambletown: smoky, salty, sweet (only three producers)

Mexico has recently (2013) entered the market, and its use of ancestral Mexican corn causes me to recommend it as a must-taste. India, Germany, Australia, and many other countries produce whiskies, but this primer is a good place to begin a whisky journey.

July 2023

Wine is for sale in virtually all price ranges. What causes the vast differences? Is quality closely tied to price? Is a higher priced bottle worth its tag? Let’s explore some of the many factors that contribute to the end cost of a bottle of wine.

GROWING GRAPES

Land — Starting, quite literally, from the ground up, the price of real estate varies depending on country, size, soil, altitude, sun-facing slopes, demand, and availability. Examples: Land in established fine wine growing regions is pricier than a similar plot in an unestablished region and slopes are pricier than valleys as they can produce finer fruit.

Weather — Weather can change the number of grapes available for harvest as it alters the growing conditions each season. Fewer grapes mean less wine and, in a fine wine growing region, this means higher prices to reduce the normal demand.

Harvest — Grapes can be harvested by machine or hand due to preference, law, or slopes too steep to accommodate machinery. Harvest costs vary based on method, local labor costs, and machinery investment and upkeep.

WINEMAKING (turning harvested grapes into wine)

Equipment — From crushing to pressing to clarifying, equipment is needed and varies in investment and upkeep costs.

Containers — Choice of fermentation, aging, and storage containers (wood, concrete, clay, steel) impact both finished product and price.

Labor — The number of workers needed scales depending on the particular processing path chosen. The price of some labor, such as blenders, can be very high.

PACKAGING

Bottles — Endless options here for glass thickness, color, and bottle shape will impact production costs.

Closures — There are many options (cork, plastic, glass) which are chosen by heritage, cost, and how long the wine is expected to be stored or aged.

Label — Packaging is important in attracting consumers to purchase. The label can range from a few printed words on budget paper to commissioned artwork on expensive paper.

GETTING THE PRODUCT INTO CONSUMERS’ GLASSES

Advertising — Some go big and some remain understated in print, media, store display signage, and seasonal promotions.

Distribution — Down the street or around the world shipping and use of another company’s established distribution network or in-house distributing are some cost-varying factors.

CULTURE

Brand recognition — Increased demand reduces supply and increases price.

Cultural Perception — Some products enter mainstream culture through longevity or perhaps they are catapulted to popularity from a mention in movies or music or association with a celebrity. Items in sudden high demand will both adjust and be able to fetch a ballooned price.

Established Concepts — Some wine products ride the wave of a previous brand’s successful marketing campaign. Example: Sparkling wines are now associated with luxury and higher prices are accepted and even expected.

Grape name recognition — The word chardonnay sells more bottles than a lesser known grape variety’s name on the label, especially among casual consumers.

RESTAURANTS AND BARS

Involving a restaurant or bar in the life of a bottle will significantly increase wallet impact. Industry standard hovers around 300% mark up. Happy hours and promotions aside, the price of one glass in restaurant is roughly the bottle purchase price for home consumption.

No, cost is not solely indicative of quality (one missing factor can drastically alter finished quality) but it is often a decent indicator. When choosing a bottle, I recommend honoring personal tastes above all.

January 2023

Wine and health, it’s a trendy topic with marketing aimed squarely at our wishes for wine to be organic, gluten free, vegetarian, low in calories, or healthy. We can’t rely solely on label claims so I’ll briefly define and explain a few topics to aid in making informed wine purchases that fit specific dietary and moral preferences.

Dry farming means that only rainfall, no municipal water or stored rainwater, is allowed. This should, and usually does, mean the grower will choose the plot carefully to accommodate this restriction. Perhaps the land is flat to minimize run off, or on the correct side of a hill to maximize rainfall potential, or a foggy area to grab extra moisture. Definitions and regulations vary among countries and regions. As long as no municipal water is used, some areas allow for collection of either a limited or unlimited amount of rainwater to use later. Dry farming is about producing hearty and intense fruit. Not all grape varieties are suited for it, but the areas that require dry farming have adapted by using the appropriate fruits and the resulting wines can be absolutely gorgeous. Dry farming focuses on preserving the available water by minimizing runoff and removing weeds that use water. If you can’t add more, don’t waste what you have.

Organic farming regulations for certification vary wildly among countries and some regions are completely unregulated for this. Without regulations and inspections in place, the labels can state virtually anything. Consumers have varying ideas of what organic means. My definition of organic is no inorganic products added to the soil or sprayed on the plants and nothing but rainfall or collected rainwater to irrigate. (I prefer dry-farmed wines for their intensity, but water is not a factor in defining organic.) It can take pesticides 4---5 years to break down in the soil, so my definition includes that land either be left fallow (unplanted) for those years before attempting an organic crop of grapes or to grow crops adhering to organic standards for those years without terming them organic.

Organic wine is another topic completely. Truly organic wines do contain organic grapes, but organic grapes are not always processed into wine organically. While reviewing packaging, consider the country and its regulations, and that an organic stamp could mean either the full process or only the grapes.

Organic farming shouldn’t contain pesticides, but this likely means a few bugs are processed into the wine (or food) leaving a gray area since regulations often term that vegetarian, but many consumers do not. Grapes are vegetarian, without animal products or byproducts, by nature, but the processing of fining, clearing the wine of tiny particles, often uses egg whites, fish or animal bladders, gelatin, or bull’s blood, which was banned in EU and USA in 1997 in efforts to contain mad cow disease but is still in use in other countries and in wines processed before this date. There are ways to fine wine without animal products, such as clay and carbon, and many wineries do.

Gluten-free wine does exist but attention is needed if you have celiac disease (coeliac, British) and need to avoid gluten traces. Grapes are gluten free by nature, but storage barrels might have wheat paste binding their planks or wheat gluten might be used as the fining agent, which fits vegetarian standards, but is not gluten free. Gluten-free certifications vary by country. In the USA and EU, traces of gluten up to 20ppm are included in the definition of gluten-free products and this amount has caused reactions in celiac patients. Research is needed on your part before deciding if a marketed gluten-free wine is void of all gluten products.

Few things are trendier in the world of wine, and seemingly everywhere, than the search for a shortcut to health. Buzzwords include low-cal, sugar free, carb-free, skinny, or fitness. No wine is calorie-free. Calories in wine come from its alcohol and sugar. The percentages vary, but alcohol is a byproduct of the fermentation of sugar and this means that as sugar decreases alcohol increases, so the calories are there one way or the other. Yes, alcohol has slightly fewer calories by volume than sugar. Yes, some grapes have less sugar at harvest so the total achievable alcohol percentage is lower, but each of these scenarios presents variation by only 1 or 2 calories per ounce (average ounce of wine contains about 25 calories) and for a full glass of wine that equates to the calories in about ½ of a walnut. It’s virtually impossible to get every bit of sugar to ferment into alcohol. The standard definition of sugar-free wine, although loose and not regulated the same everywhere, still allows 1g/l. Even then, most wines are not made that dry since they aren’t very palatable at that point. No shortcut to be found here. Wine has calories, sugar, and carbohydrates.

Perhaps the most common subject regarding health and wine is the belief that wine is healthy due to its antioxidants. White wine does contain traces and red wine does contain a minimal amount of antioxidants, but wine is not high on the antioxidant chart and there are loads of foods and drinks higher in antioxidants that do not include alcohol.

Wine contains calories, carbohydrates, sugar, alcohol, and often animal byproducts. I’m not saying any of this is negative, as I’m pro wine all the way, but I am saying they are there. Many choose not to bring food dietary preferences into wine choices. For those that do, now you are aware of the leniency in these definitions and that research of label claims is required to determine if a product satisfies your preferences.

July 2022

Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage worldwide and, with mid-summer heat upon some of us, I feel a beer chat is in order. With options from dark and heavy to tart and light, there is a beer to fit every occasion and whim.

Ales and lagers are the two broad categories of beer, and I do mean broad, as there are innumerable styles in each of these categories and even some overlap. However, there are steadfast differences that establish their base characteristics. They are processed at different temperatures and use different types of yeast. Ales are made with yeasts that float at the top of the tank at temperatures in the 70F/20C range, and produce an intense beer. Lagers are made with yeasts that settle at the bottom of the tank at temperatures in the 50F/10C range, and produce a clean and crisp beer.

Hops are hot right now and seem to be at the forefront of most beer conversations I have and the bulk of the beer questions I receive. I’ll touch on the subject here and aim for a full article on hops in the future. Hops are flowers of the humulus lupulus, in the Cannabaceae family of plants. (Cannabis is also a member of this family.) There are different varieties of hop plants, but right now, Mosaic hops seem to be the hottest on the market, so much that the word Mosaic is frequently included in beer names. Hops are harvested, dried, then strategically added at specific times during the boiling process of the beer grains, which is before

fermentation. The longer the hops are boiled, fewer floral and herbal characteristics show and more bitterness is drawn from them into the beer. Hops may be added both early and late in the process to achieve a broader spectrum of characteristics. Sometimes the hops are added after the boiling stage and left to soak in the cooled liquid. This process is called dry hopping. Dry-hopped beers are not bitter but do have a fair amount of fresh flower aroma and flavor. The bitterness level of hops is measured by the International Bitterness Scale (IBU) and is often marked on the label. Zero is the bottom of the scale, but there is no ceiling. Most fall somewhere between 0 and 120. I advise paying attention to the IBU number on your preferred beers to aid in future purchases. Hops also serve the purpose of helping to stabilize the foam and preserve the beer. Virtually all beer is made with hops. Gruits are the exception and use an herb blend instead.

I’ll leave you with a list of some favorite beer types and their characteristics to explore.

ALES

PALE ALE - malty, mellow, yeasty, light in color

AMERICAN PALE - bold hop flavor, typical of American beer trend, medium body, amber in color

ENGLISH BITTER PALE - though the name implies otherwise, actually less bitter and more floral and fruity

BLONDE PALE - mild, smooth, light in color

INDIA PALE ALE (IPA) - citrus, fruit, hops, herbs, medium-body, copper in color - if you like hops, this is your stop

AMERICA IPA - prevalent hops, citrus, pine, gold in color

ENGLISH IPA - moderate hops, moderate malt, amber in color

HAZY IPA - IPA unfiltered, will look cloudy, have heavier body, possibly bigger flavors

IMPERIAL IPA or DOUBLE IPA - prevalent hop characteristics, red-copper in color

WHEAT - wheat is malt ingredient, low alcohol/hops/malt, smooth, sometimes hazy, light in color

STOUTS - look very dark and bold, but in reality sweet and creamy with a touch of coffee

IMPERIAL STOUT - higher alcohol and hoppier stout, thanks to extra grains and hops

MILK STOUT (also Cream Stout or English Sweet Stout) - brewed with lactose, subtly sweet and smooth

IRISH STOUT - robust, yet very smooth

AMERICAN STOUT - tend to show the typical American-style hop flavor

PORTERS - touch of chocolate, very dark in color

BELGIAN - varies from fruits, sours, pale, dark and generally not very bitter

TRAPPIST - made at Trappist monasteries, they vary, but often dark and smooth

BELGIAN DUBBLE - strong, rich, malty

BELGIAN TRIPEL - hoppy, rich, full of flavor, often high ABV

SOURS - tart ales that are highly acidic, often featuring a fruit flavor, such as a cherry sour

LAGERS

PALE LAGER - crisp and light with medium hops

PILSNERS - named after city of Pilsen in Czech Republic, easy, light, hoppy, German Pilsners are crisp and Czech Pilsners are bitter

HELLES - malty, refreshing

VIENNA - toasty, malts, amber in color

MEXICAN - clean, low hops, made with corn and often paired with a lime, thanks to Corona’s successful marketing

KOLSCH - interesting beer as it is an ale made at lager temperature, they are crisp, flavorful, delicate, pale gold in color

There are countless seasonal and specialty beers on the market as well, so try a summer shandy or a fall pumpkin beer. If you are new to beer, I recommend starting with a clean and light lager and moving to bolder products as you journey through the world of beer.

January 2022

Bordeaux is the capital city of the Aquitaine region of France. It is also the region’s largest city. This UNESCO World Heritage site is dubbed Port of the Moon for its location on a crescent-shaped bend in the river Garonne. The Bordeaux wine region surrounds the city and is the largest wine growing area in France. Its success is largely due to its location. The climate is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees Mountains and the soil is near ideal for viticulture. Its well-regarded wines are copied around the world and are an especially heavy influence on wines of the new world (Southern Hemisphere and the Americas). Bordeaux wines are typically cabernet sauvignon and merlot blends that often include supporting grapes to round them out. The area produces wines ranging from table to trophy.

Bordeaux wine is bound by AOC (appellation d'origine contrôlée) regulations regarding details such as maximum alcohol by volume, irrigation, maximum yield, and residual sugars. French AOC regulations are also in place for products such as cheese, butter, lavender, honey, and spirits.

In January of 2021, 6 additional grape varieties were approved for limited use in Bordeaux by the INAO (Institut national de l'origine et de la qualité), the regulatory organization for agriculture products in France. The restrictions on these grapes include which appellations may use them (no major appellations at this point), amount planted in each vineyard (max 5%), and amount allowed in the blend (max 10%). It is unusual for additional grapes to be allowed or restrictions to change for wines in this area. These varieties were approved in light of climate change. There were 14 approved grape varieties already in use, 6 reds and 8 whites. With the new approvals, there are 20 in total, 10 reds and 10 whites. The recent additions are marked with *. The reds are cabernet sauvignon, cabernet franc, merlot, malbec, carménère, petit verdot, arinarnoa*, castets*, marselan*, and touriga nacional*. The whites are sémillon, sauvignon blanc, sauvignon gris, muscadelle, colombard, ugni blanc, merlot blanc, mauzac, alvarinho*, and liliorila*.

Cabernet sauvignon is a red grape that brings structure to a wine. Its tannic skins and rich profile make it a perfect blending partner for the softer and fruitier merlot. It is capable of extended aging. Although grown worldwide, it is hard to find a better expression of cab than the full-bodied, firmly acidic wines from Margaux, Saint-Estèphe, and Pauillac.

Merlot, with its plush texture and velvety tannins, brings elegance to cabernet’s intensity. Nowhere does this combination show better than in the wines of Saint-Émilion and Pomerol.

Cabernet franc is an intense dark red grape that is primarily used as a supporting grape in cab and merlot blends. It is a parent grape to both cabernet sauvignon and merlot so it makes sense that it would blend well with them. It brings currant and herbal characteristics, has a medium body, and is lighter in tannins and higher in acidity than many big reds. It is heavily featured in a few blends in Saint-Émilion, such as Château Cheval Blanc.

Petit verdot is a tannic red that adds deep beautiful color and rigid structure to a blend. It has dark berry characteristics that work well with cab and merlot.

Malbec produces a beautifully intense dark wine and can add both tart and savory notes to a blend.

Carménère is reminiscent of merlot but with a delicious peppery kick. Like cabernet sauvignon and merlot, it is an offspring of cabernet franc. It is not used as often as I’d like in Bordeaux blends.

Marselan, a cross between grenache noir and cabernet sauvignon, can add rich color, tannins, and body to a blend.

Touriga Nacional can add structure to a blend with its full body and high tannins. It is resistant to many growing plights of more sensitive grapes and can age well.

Castets is lower in acidity and can produce a wine higher in alcohol than many of the grapes on this list and that can be useful in a blend. It’s a fairly hearty variety in regard to mildew, which is good for this wine growing area near a coast and rivers.

Arinarnoa is an offspring of cabernet sauvignon that was developed in 1956 by INRA (Institut national de la recherche agronomique). It is hearty in regard to rot and a late bloomer which protects it against spring frosts.

Sauvignon blanc is a versatile white that grows well in a variety of climates. In Graves, it blends amazingly well with sémillon and adds crisp citrus and herbs to the blend. It pairs well with many foods and, for this reason, I always keep a white Bordeaux on hand. It is also used in the sweet wines of Sauternes. If you haven’t had a Sauternes, that’s next on your list.

Sémillon brings body and a waxy sort of texture to balance the acidic and crisp sauvignon blanc in both dry and sweet wine blends. Its floral and stone fruit characteristics further broaden the spectrum.

Muscadelle is a bit difficult to grow since it is sensitive to disease. Because of its intense floral characteristics, it is generally used sparingly in Bordeaux blends.

Sauvignon gris is a mutation of sauvignon blanc and can add full texture to a blend. It’s an early ripener which is useful in cooler growing seasons.

Colombard is a versatile and neutral white. It adds acidity to a blend, which also brings a crisp tartness.

Ugni blanc (also known as Trebbiano) is an acidic white variety that is resistant to disease so it grows well near the water.

Merlot blanc is a fairly neutral wine with a faint raspberry aroma. It ripens early and is a consistent grower.

Mauzac is a late-ripening white that can add acidity to a blend.

Alvarinho has strong characteristics that add complexity to blends and should be helpful in cooler growing seasons that could dampen other varieties’ aromas and flavors.

Liliorila is an offspring of chardonnay that was developed in 1956 by INRA. It can be quite aromatic and should be a useful tool in adding complexity to blends.

I am interested to see how these newly-approved grapes will weave in with the current varieties for future wines of Bordeaux. I think we might see further regulation tweaks with possible expansion on the usage of these grapes. On the subject of regulations, grape varieties other than the above 20 may be and are grown and processed in the boundaries of the Bordeaux wine growing region, but they are labeled as a Vin de France since they don’t meet AOC regulations for a Bordeaux wine. With so many grape varieties and blending options, there surely is a Bordeaux wine for every palate.

July 2021

I, for one, am pleased that wine bottles are no longer closed with oil-soaked rags as in the 1600s. Over the centuries, closures have improved considerably in reliability and variety. Does the wine require aging or is it ready to drink? Is it meant to be consumed at one sitting or does it call for a reliable stopper for reuse? From natural cork to crown caps, the needs of the wine can now be met.

NATURAL CORK is a traditional closure used for approximately 70% of all wine bottles and 90% of fine wine bottles. Fine wines are often more capable of aging well and need the porous material to allow a bit of oxygen in to slowly interact. Half of the world’s cork supply is produced in the cork oak forests of Alentajo, Portugal. These trees have a lifespan of 200 years, take 25 years to mature for harvest, and can be harvested only every 9 years. Half of the bark of the tree is peeled off and cut into large sheets. Cylindrical pieces are stamped out of the sheet and cut larger and longer than the bottle top area so that when they are pressed in they shorten and widen to form the needed seal. The remains are ground for use in either agglomerated corks (cork dust and glue) or retail items such as coasters and cork boards. The positives are that cork is renewable, recyclable, and biodegradable. The negatives are natural flaws and the possibility of 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) contamination. Flaws, such as cracks in the bark, make the material inconsistent in the amount of oxygen it allows in. TCA is the result of interaction between several substances, such as fungi, bacteria, mold, and pesticides. It has a musty smell and can ruin the wine that it touches. It can occur on the tree before harvest or in damp storage facilities after being stamped into corks.

SYNTHETIC CORKS are designed to mimic natural corks and made from plastic compounds. The positives are numerous: little risk of TCA, predictable consistency for the amount of oxygen they allow in and are produced with various levels of permeability, and they are less expensive than natural cork. The negative is that they are not biodegradable. Also, some winemakers prefer to adhere to the tradition of natural corks.

CAPPED CORKS are corks with a plastic or wooden topper to keep out oxygen. They are most often used for spirits that are likely to be opened and closed many times, for instance a fine scotch that is opened for a pour every couple of months. These are also often used in tasting rooms since the bottle will be opened and closed all day long for small pours but also needs some cover during the day.

SCREW CAPS function like the caps on plastic water bottles. Some are engineered to allow a precise amount of predictable oxygen exposure to the wines and some fully shut out oxygen and are used for drink-now wines. New Zealand championed these a couple decades ago and uses them for the vast majority of their wine bottle closures. They have the positives of not being subject to TCA and are easy to open and close.

HERMETIC CORKS are reusable and airtight. They are perfect for recorking a sparkling wine bottle and they stay put, thanks to their included clip. Pressure of a sparkling would push a non-se cured closure out, pretty quickly rendering it flat.

VINOSEALS are glass closures. They are pricey to produce and not good for wines that age, but they are lovely. They are perfect for rosés, where beautifully styling the bottle is a big focus and aging isn’t needed. They are so pretty that I keep a bowl of them out as decoration.

CROWN CAPS are often seen on beer but sometimes wines. They are popped off with a bottle opener, keep aging at bay, and are meant for products that do not need to be recapped. They are often a stylistic choice in an attempt to make the product seem more accessible and casual.

Don't judge a wine by its closure by assuming things such as a wine topped with a screw cap is of a lesser quality than one topped with a natural cork. Sometimes they are, but sometimes they aren't. There are a variety of reasons for the winemaker's choice and I don't let the type of closure influence my wine purchases. I urge you to do the same.

January 2021

Although not all experts agree that wine and chocolate pair well, I say YES to wine and chocolate and I say YES they complement each other when paired correctly. Both have a wide range of flavors, textures, and sweetness levels, so I do admit there’s a bit to sort out before choosing the best pairings.

Wine Keys (to unlock the confusion that is 'cacao vs cocoa' and a few other terms)

cacao tree - tree that bears cacao pods filled with cacao seeds

cacao bean - fermented and dried but UNROASTED seed from pod of cacao tree

cocoa bean - fermented and dried and ROASTED seed from pod of cacao tree

cocoa butter - pale yellow fat extracted from cocoa beans

chocolate - products made from cocoa beans and/or cocoa butter

fermentation - yeast eats sugar = alcohol (simplified but will suffice for this topic)

tannin - bitter-tasting substance in cacao, cocoa, and wine, leaving dry feeling in mouth (again, simplified but works here)

Cacao seeds have long been revered worldwide. Xocalātl (Nahuatl, language of the Aztecs, word from which the English word chocolate is derived) dates back to 1900BC Mexico. Residuals in vessels confirmed that cacao pod pulp was fermented into alcohol. The ancient Mayans, and eventually the Aztecs as well, traded cacao seeds as currency. Cacao seeds arrived in Spain in the 16th century via explorers thus beginning a rapid spread through Europe and subsequently the world. Their hold remains strong today.

Growing and processing cacoa trees is detailed. They are highly sensitive to temperatures and water levels, growing only in tropical areas and responding only to extensive rainfall. The pods must be harvested at a precise ripeness level to ensure sufficient sugars for fermentation. After fermentation, the seeds are dried and cleaned, roasted and sorted, shelled and ground. Then conching (process to even and smooth) and tempering (process to stabilize and enhance shine) can take place. Of course there are endless possibilities for blending with sugars, milks, fruits, and flavors to produce endless marketable products. Chocolate can vary greatly in characteristics, as can wine. Let’s get down to specifics about how best to pair some of their characteristics.

Most often wine pairing is about contrasts. However, when pairing sweet items, similarities are the primary focus. Consider sweetness levels, tannin levels, and flavor intensity of the chocolate and choose a wine which matches or surpasses these.

Sweet chocolate will highlight a wine’s bitter flavors so choose a wine sweeter than the chocolate. Tokaj (dessert wine, Hungary) and Sauternes (dessert wine, France) work well as they are sweeter than most chocolates. You should consider these virtually safe for pairing with chocolates.

A rich and creamy chocolate dish, such as lava cake, can overpower a wine so choose a fortified sweet wine matched in flavor impact, such as ruby port.

Match the tannins in dark chocolate with, let’s say, a Chilean cabernet?

White chocolate contains cocoa butter, but no cocoa solids, hence no dark color. It has a buttery flavor and the similar flavor in a buttery California chardonnay works well.

If you wish to serve sparking, choose a sweet riesling (Germany) or a Moscato d’Asti (Italy) for most chocolates.

Choose a sauvignon blanc (citrus and stone fruit characteristics, New Zealand) for chocolate with light fruit flavors, cabernet franc (mint, France) for chocolate with mint flavors, and a zinfandel (blueberry, California) for chocolate with dark berry flavors.

Not surprisingly, I’m going to recommend a dry Champagne here as well. This contrast I find nice with virtually all levels of chocolaty, creamy, sugary concoctions.

My favorite? Tawny port and a square of hazelnut chocolate. These go well together because both the sugar levels and nutty flavors are similar. It’

July 2020

I’m often asked to identify my favorite wine. It is a puzzling choice. Certainly, I appreciate a variety of wines and am unable to fathom my world without Syrah but the premier position goes to sparkling wine from Champagne, France. The fine-textured bubbles, delicate color, crisp acid, and hints of limestone and brioche are but a sampling of its lauded characteristics. It also pairs well with virtually every food combination and category.

When sparkling wine is produced in and adheres to the regulations of the Champagne area, it may bear its area’s name, Champagne. With documented plantings as early as the 5th century, Champagne has a long history of striving for excellence in wine. Though for centuries still wine was their end goal, not sparkling. Even into the 1700s, the Champenois considered bubbles in wine to be a fault.

The cold temperatures of northern France were restrictive to viticulture and often left grapes with low sugar levels and sky-high acid. The grapes were then fermented, meaning yeast was left to feed on the sugar, which created alcohol and the byproduct carbon dioxide. The CO2 escaped the non-airtight fermentation containers and resulted in the intended still wine. The winter temperatures at times rendered the yeast dormant which prematurely stopped the process of fermentation. The vintners bottled and cellared the still wine, unaware that the fermentation process had halted rather than completed. If a warm spring followed, the yeast awakened and restarted fermentation in the closed bottles and effectively trapped the CO2, which resulted in undesirable bubbles and pressure inside the frail glass bottles of the time. Some bottles exploded from the pressure, which was dangerous, costly and messy. The bottles that survived revealed faulty bubbles when opened.

In the late 1660s, Pierre Pérignon, a Benedictine monk, was elevated to the status of ‘Dom’ and transferred to the Abbaye Saint-Pierre d’Hautvillers, an Abbey in the Champagne area, where he became cellar master. Pale color and the absence of bubbles were valued qualities and he strove for improvements in those qualities. He recognized that red grapes were less susceptible than white to pesky bubbles, so he used the red grape Pinot Noir in his efforts, which eased the bubble problem, but resulted in the pink grape skins darkening the wine. During his decades at the Abbey, Pérignon did not entirely solve the bubble quandary. However, he perfected the process of ridding the wine of its pink color and produced truly white wine from red grapes.

Since Pérignon’s time, various factors have contributed to a shift in popular opinion, which subsequently influenced Champagne production, from still to sparkling. The English quite enjoyed the novelty of bubbly wine from their French neighbors and yearned to reproduce it. Glass bottles were improved in strength which increased their reliability and safety. Knowledge was furthered on the science of fermentation which increased the understanding of how bubbles appeared. Kings were crowned at Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims in Champagne and the local wine was in attendance thus boosting its tie to the upper class. Successful marketing, which linked the product to lifestyle, luxury and celebration played its part as well. The current result is well-made and extraordinarily bubbly wine which sits firmly in the premier position on my list of favorites.

January 2020